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• The genomic landscape of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma from immunosuppressed and immunocompetent patients reveals common drivers and a novel mutational signature associated with chronic azathioprine exposure

  Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) has a high tumour mutational burden (50 mutations per megabase DNA pair). Combining whole exome analyses from 40 primary cSCC tumours, comprising 20 well differentiated and 20 moderately/poorly differentiated tumours, with accompanying clinical data from a longitudinal study of immunosuppressed and immunocompetent patients, coupled with integration of independent gene expression studies has allowed the identification of commonly mutated genes and altered pathways and processes. Mutational signature analysis revealed the presence of a novel signature (signature 32), which was found exclusively in the tumours from immunosuppressed patients who had been exposed to azathioprine. Characterisation of a panel of 15 keratinocyte cancer cell lines derived from tumours from immunocompetent and immunosuppressed patients reveals that they accurately reflect the mutational signatures and genomic alterations of primary tumours and provide a resource for the validation of tumour drivers and therapeutic targets.

  Study EGAS00001002612

• RNA-seq profiling of NKX6.1 reporter iPSC lines for isolation and analysis of functionally relevant neuronal and pancreas populations

  We generated human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines with a GFP reporter inserted in the endogenous NKX6.1 locus. Characterisation of the reporter lines demonstrated faithful GFP labelling of NKX6.1 expression during pancreas and motor neuron differentiation. We performed three independent in vitro differentiations towards the pancreatic endocrine lineage. We FACS-purified GFP positive and negative cells from stage 7 cultures, and generated Smart-Seq2 RNA-sequencing libraries for the pre-sorted cells, as well as the two GFP-sorted cell populations. Gene expression profiling by RNA-sequencing reveals that the NKX6.1-positive population closely resembles mature human beta cells and the functional evaluation of purified populations shows that the glucose-responsive beta-like cells are enriched within the NKX6.1-positive population. These reporter lines provide a valuable resource to the scientific community for the derivation of functional relevant pancreas and neuronal cell subtypes.

  Study EGAS00001002802

• The interface of malignant and immunologic clonal dynamics in high-grade serous ovarian cancer

  High-grade serous ovarian cancer exhibits extensive intratumoral heterogeneity coupled with widespread intraperitoneal disease. Despite this, metastatic spread of tumor clones is non-random, implying the existence of local microenvironmental factors that shape tumor progression. We interrogated the molecular interface between tumorinfiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) and cancer cells in 143 samples from 21 patients using whole-genome sequencing, immunohistochemistry, histologic image analysis, gene expression profiling, and T- and B-cell receptor sequencing. We identify 3 immunologic response categories, which frequently co-exist within individual patients. Furthermore, epithelial CD8+ TIL were inversely associated with malignant cell diversity, evidenced by subclonal neoepitope elimination and spatial tracking between tumor and T-cell clones. Intersecting mutational signatures and immune analysis showed that foldback inversion genomic aberrations lead to worse outcomes even in the presence of cytotoxic TIL (n=433). Thus, regional variation in immune contexture mirrors the pattern of intraperitoneal malignant spread, provoking new perspectives for treatment of this challenging disease.

  Study EGAS00001002839

• Exome and RNA sequencing data from 32 ocular and extraocular sebaceous carcinomas

  Sebaceous carcinomas (SeC) are cutaneous malignancies that, in rare cases, metastasize and prove fatal. Here we report whole exome sequencing on 32 SeC, revealing distinct mutational classes that explain both cancer ontogeny and clinical course. A UV-damage signature predominated 10/32 samples, while 9 were instead defined by microsatellite instability (MSI) mutations. UV-damage SeC exhibited poorly differentiated, infiltrative histopathologycompared to MSI signature SeC (p = 0.003), features previously associated with dissemination. Strikingly, UV-damage SeC transcriptomes and anatomic distributionclosely resembling those of cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), implicating sun-exposed keratinocytes as a cell of origin. Like SCC, this UV-damage subclass harbors a high somatic mutation burden with >50 mutations/Mb, predicting immunotherapeutic response. In contrast, ocular SeC acquire far fewer mutations without a dominant signature, but show frequent truncating mutations in the ZNF750 epidermal differentiation regulator. Our data exemplify how different mutational processes convergently drive histopathologically related but clinically distinct cancers.

  Study EGAS00001002869

• CTCF/cohesin-binding sites are frequently mutated in cancer

  Cohesin is present in almost all active enhancer regions, where it is associated with transcription factors. Cohesin frequently colocalizes with CTCF (CCCTC-binding factor), affecting genomic stability, expression and epigenetic homeostasis. Cohesin subunits are mutated in cancer, but CTCF/cohesin-binding sites (CBSs) in DNA have not been examined for mutations. Here we report frequent mutations at CBSs in cancers displaying a mutational signature where mutations in A•T base pairs predominate. Integration of whole-genome sequencing data from 213 colorectal cancer (CRC) samples and chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-exo) data identified frequent point mutations at CBSs. In contrast, CRCs showing an ultramutator phenotype caused by defects in the exonuclease domain of DNA polymerase ɛ (POLE) displayed significantly fewer mutations at and adjacent to CBSs. Analysis of public data showed that multiple cancer types accumulate CBS mutations. CBSs are a major mutational hotspot in the noncoding cancer genome.

  Study EGAS00001003010

• FBSeq: RNA sequencing of human fetal brain.

  RNA sequencing of 120 human fetal brains (aged 12-19 post-conception weeks) was performed as part of a Medical Research Council (U.K.) funded project (MR/L010674/2) to investigate genetic effects on gene expression in the developing human brain and their role in neuropsychiatric disorders. Human fetal brain tissue from elective terminations of pregnancy was provided by the Human Developmental Biology Resource (HDBR) (http://www.hdbr.org), with ethical approval (#08/H0712/34), and with consent for use of fetal material for medical research provided by female donors. Total RNA was extracted from half of the available brain tissue from each fetus using Tri-Reagent and treated with TURBO DNase. RNA-Seq libraries were prepared using 1µg of purified total RNA and the Illumina TruSeq Stranded Total RNA Library Prep kit, following ribosomal RNA depletion. Libraries were sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq 2500 or HiSeq 4000 systems, generating at least 50 million read pairs per sample.

  Study EGAS00001003214

• Single-cell RNA-seq of immune cells sorted from human melanoma tumors

  Tumor immune cell compositions play a major role in response to immunotherapy but the heterogeneity and dynamics of immune infiltrates in human cancer lesions remain poorly characterized. Here we identify conserved intratumoral CD4 and CD8 T cell behaviors in scRNA-seq data from 25 melanoma patients. We discover a large population of CD8 T cells showing continuous progression from an early effector "transitional" into a dysfunctional T cell state. CD8 T cells that express a complete cytotoxic gene set are rare, and TCR sharing data suggest their independence from the transitional and dysfunctional cell states. Notably, we demonstrate that dysfunctional T cells are the major intratumoral proliferating immune cell compartment and that the intensity of the dysfunctional signature is associated with tumor-reactivity. Our data demonstrate that CD8 T cells previously defined as exhausted, are in fact a highly proliferating, clonal and dynamically differentiating cell population within the human tumor microenvironment.

  Study EGAS00001003363

• Germline and somatic SMARCA4 mutations characterize small-cell carcinoma of the ovary, hypercalcemic type.

  Small-cell carcinoma of the ovary, hypercalcemic type (SCCOHT) is the most common undifferentiated ovarian malignancy in women under 40 years1. We sequenced the exomes of six individuals from three SCCOHT families. After discovering segregating deleterious germline mutations in SMARCA4 in all three families, we tested DNA from a fourth family, which also possessed a segregating SMARCA4 germline mutation. All familial tumors sequenced harboured either a somatic mutation or loss of the wild-type allele. Immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis of these and additional familial and non-familial cases showed loss of the SMARCA4 protein (BRG1) in 38/40 tumors overall. Sequencing of cases with available DNA revealed at least one germline or somatic deleterious SMARCA4 mutation in 30/32 cases. Additionally, the SCCOHT cell line BIN-67 contained bi-allelic deleterious mutations in SMARCA4. Our findings identify alterations in SMARCA4 as the major cause of SCCOHT, which could lead to genetic counseling and new treatment approaches.

  Study EGAS00001000721

• 65 prostate cancer cases WGS and transcriptome sequencing project

  We obtained whole-genome and transcriptome sequencing of tumor-benign pairs from 65 Asian prostate cancer (PCa) patients. Taken together with the TCGA PCa cohort, our integration analysis provides the first comprehensive mutational landscape of PCas across major ethnics worldwide and reveals potential novel role of frequent altered chromatin remodeler genes in PCas without androgen receptor (AR) alteration and complex rearrangements derived from Chromoplexy. In addition, we identified 5 putative tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) chains including one on chromosome 13q with novel findings of PCDH9 (deletions in 15/65 tumors) which was implicated in aggressive progression of prostate cancer. Finally, the integrative pathway and co-expression network analysis followed by the functional study indicated the frequent altered genes, particularly focal amplifications of PLXNA1 (11/65), in semaphoring signaling of axon guidance pathway may interact with PI3K/AKT and AR signaling and also contribute to the aggressiveness and progression of prostate cancer.

  Study EGAS00001000888

• DIME study: Safety, dose-response and efficacy of treatment with Anaerobutyricum soehgenii on glucose metabolism in human subjects with metabolic syndrome

  The intestinal microbiota has been implicated in insulin resistance, although evidence regarding causality in humans is scarce. We herefore performed a phase I/II dose-finding and safety study on the effect of oral intake of the anaerobic butyrogenic Anaerobutyricum soehgenii on glucose metabolism in subjects with metabolic syndrome. We found that treatment with A. soehgenii was safe and observed an overall significant and dose-dependent increase in insulin sensitivity after 4 weeks in all treated subjects. This was accompanied by an altered microbiota composition and a change in bile acid metabolism. Finally, we show that metabolic response upon administration of A. soehgenii (defined as improved insulin sensitivity 4 weeks after A. soehgenii intake) is dependent on microbiota composition at baseline. These data in humans are promising and additional studies are needed to study long-term effects as well as modes of delivery.

  Study EGAS00001003498