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• RBMX functional retrocopy safeguards brain development

  Retrotransposition has generated thousands of intronless gene copies in mammalian genomes, yet their contribution to brain development and evolution remains largely unexplored. We investigated the role for RBMX retrocopy in shaping neurodevelopment and modulating disease. First, we reported 8 distinct pathogenic variants in RBMX, an X-linked splicing regulator, in 11 males presenting with intellectual disability, microcephaly, and cortical malformations. Then, we combined transcriptomic profiling, protein–protein and protein–RNA interaction studies both in human cellular models and mouse embryonic cortices to assess the functional redundancy between RBMX and its retrocopy RBMXL1. Finally, we use mouse genetics to dissect RBMX function and its compensation by RBMXL1 in corticogenesis. We show that RBMX pathogenic variants disrupt cortical development through both loss- and gain-of-function mechanisms. Surprisingly, despite severe phenotypes in humans, Rbmx-deficient mice display only mild cortical abnormalities, a discrepancy likely due to compensation by Rbmxl1, a retrocopy that arose independently in mice and humans. We demonstrate that RBMX and RBMXL1 share protein and RNA partners and act redundantly in brain development, with RBMXL1 buffering the impact of RBMX deficiency. Together, these findings establish that RBMXL1 functions as a functional paralog of RBMX safeguarding neurodevelopment by buffering deleterious variation. More broadly, these results identify retrocopies as active contributors to neurodevelopmental robustness and suggest that functional retrocopies may have facilitated the evolutionary diversification of the mammalian brain.

  Study EGAS50000001650

• A Single-Cell and Spatial Atlas of Early Human Olfactory Development

  The human nasal region is a complex structure derived from neural crest and placodal lineages, but its development remains poorly understood due to limited fetal tissue access and its intricate architecture. To address this, we created a single-nucleus and spatial transcriptomic atlas of the human fetal nasal region using tissue from 10 fetuses between 7 and 12 post-conceptional weeks. Single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) revealed 34 distinct cell types, including epithelial, cartilaginous, immune, neuronal, glial, muscular, and vascular cells. By integrating snRNA-seq with multiplexed error-robust fluorescence in situ hybridization (MERFISH), we tracked dynamic changes in cell composition and gene expression over time in the olfactory epithelium (OE) and surrounding nasal regions. We identified novel markers of olfactory sensory neuron development and key pathways regulating epithelial patterning and OE morphogenesis. Notably, we observed early molecular signatures consistent with the "one neuron-one receptor" model, with spatially organized expression of 171 olfactory receptor genes. Together, this study presents the first integrated molecular and spatial framework of early human nasal development. It offers an unprecedented molecular blueprint of olfactory system formation and serves as a foundational resource for embryologists and developmental biologists studying sensory neurogenesis, epithelial patterning, and congenital disorders.

  Dataset EGAD50000001712

• PPIL4 is essential for brain angiogenesis and implicated in intracranial aneurysm in humans

  Rupture of intracranial aneurysms (IAs) leads to subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), a sudden-onset disease often causing severe disability or death. Using whole exome sequencing, we identified significant enrichment of rare, deleterious mutations in PPIL4 in both index and familial IA cases. Ppil4 depletion causes intracerebral hemorrhage, defects in cerebrovascular morphology, and impaired Wnt signaling in vivo. Wild type, but not IA-mutant PPIL4, potentiates Wnt signaling by binding JMJD6, a known angiogenesis regulator and Wnt activator. These findings identify a novel PPIL4-dependent Wnt signaling mechanism involved in brain-specific angiogenesis and maintenance of cerebrovascular integrity, and implicate PPIL4 gene variation in the pathogenesis of human IA.

  Study EGAS00001005518

• IKZF5 RNAseq samples for platelets, neutrophils, monocytes and CD4+ T-cells.

  To identify novel causes of hereditary thrombocytopenia, we performed a genetic association analysis of whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data from 13,037 individuals enrolled in the NIHR BioResource, including 233 cases with isolated thrombocytopenia. We found an association between rare variants in the transcription factor (TF)-encoding gene IKZF5 and thrombocytopenia. We report five causal missense variants in or near IKZF5 zinc fingers (Znfs), of which two occurred de novo and three co-segregated in three pedigrees. A canonical DNA-Znf binding model predicts that three of the variants alter DNA recognition. Expression studies showed that chromatin binding was disrupted in mutant compared to wild-type (WT) IKZF5 and electron microscopy (EM) revealed a reduced quantity of alpha granules in normally sized platelets. Proplatelet formation (PPF) was reduced in megakaryocytes (MKs) from seven cases relative to six controls. Comparison of RNA-seq data from platelets, monocytes, neutrophils and CD4+ T-cells from three cases and 14 healthy controls showed 1,194 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in platelets but only four DEGs in each of the other blood cell types. In conclusion, IKZF5 is a novel transcriptional regulator of megakaryopoiesis and the eighth transcription factor associated with dominant thrombocytopenia in humans.

  Dataset EGAD00001005107

• MutWP4: CRUK Grand Challenge Mutographs of Cancer: Pancreatic Organoids (2021-02-02)

  The Mutographs project aims to advance our understanding of the causes of cancer through studies of mutational signatures. Led by Mike Stratton, together with Paul Brennan, Ludmil Alexandrov, Allan Balmain, David Phillips and Peter Campbell, this large-scale international research endeavour was awarded a Cancer Research UK Grand Challenge. Different patterns of somatic mutation are generated by the different environmental, lifestyle and genetic factors that cause cancer, many of them are still unknown. Within Mutographs, Kings College London will characterise the mutational signatures induced by putative human carcinogens in order to identify the origins of mutational signatures found in human cancers. To achieve this human organoid cell cultures will be exposed to a representative catalogue of known or suspected human carcinogens and mutagens and, using whole genome sequencing, the patterns of mutations induced by them will be determined. Somatic mutational signatures will be subsequently extracted by non-negative matrix factorisation methods and correlated with exposure data. Through an enhanced understanding of cancer aetiology, Mutographs unprecedented effort is anticipated to outline modifiable risk factors, lead to new approaches to prevent cancer, and provide opportunities to empower early detection, refine high-risk groups and contribute to further therapeutic development. . This dataset contains all the data available for this study on 2021-02-02.

  Dataset EGAD00001006933

• Sperm sequencing reveals extensive positive selection in the human germline -WGS

  Mutations that occur during human ageing in the cell lineages of sperm or eggs have the potential to be transmitted to offspring. In males, positive selection of driver mutations during spermatogenesis is known to increase the birth prevalence of certain developmental disorders and cancer predisposition syndromes. However, direct observation of the scope of this selection in sperm has been limited by the error rates of sequencing technologies. Using the duplex sequencing method known as NanoSeq, we sequenced bulk sperm samples from individuals aged 24 to 75 years. Our findings revealed a linear accumulation mutations per year and mutational signatures consistent with pedigree studies. Deep targeted and deep exome NanoSeq of sperm samples identified genes subject to significant positive selection in the male germline, which are linked to diverse cellular pathways including RAS/MAPK and BMP signaling. Strikingly, nearly all positively selected genes are associated with developmental or cancer predisposition disorders in children. We find that this effect drives an elevated risk of known likely disease-causing mutations in sperm across a wide age range. This implies that the disorders attributed to these genes likely exhibit elevated birth prevalence in human populations, particularly among older fathers. These findings shed light on the dynamics of germline mutations and highlight an increased disease risk for children born to fathers of advanced age.

  Dataset EGAD00001015592

• Sperm sequencing reveals extensive positive selection in the human germline -NanoSeq

  Mutations that occur during human ageing in the cell lineages of sperm or eggs have the potential to be transmitted to offspring. In males, positive selection of driver mutations during spermatogenesis is known to increase the birth prevalence of certain developmental disorders and cancer predisposition syndromes. However, direct observation of the scope of this selection in sperm has been limited by the error rates of sequencing technologies. Using the duplex sequencing method known as NanoSeq, we sequenced bulk sperm samples from individuals aged 24 to 75 years. Our findings revealed a linear accumulation mutations per year and mutational signatures consistent with pedigree studies. Deep targeted and deep exome NanoSeq of sperm samples identified genes subject to significant positive selection in the male germline, which are linked to diverse cellular pathways including RAS/MAPK and BMP signaling. Strikingly, nearly all positively selected genes are associated with developmental or cancer predisposition disorders in children. We find that this effect drives an elevated risk of known likely disease-causing mutations in sperm across a wide age range. This implies that the disorders attributed to these genes likely exhibit elevated birth prevalence in human populations, particularly among older fathers. These findings shed light on the dynamics of germline mutations and highlight an increased disease risk for children born to fathers of advanced age.

  Dataset EGAD00001015590

• Sperm sequencing reveals extensive positive selection in the human germline -TargetedNanoSeq

  Mutations that occur during human ageing in the cell lineages of sperm or eggs have the potential to be transmitted to offspring. In males, positive selection of driver mutations during spermatogenesis is known to increase the birth prevalence of certain developmental disorders and cancer predisposition syndromes. However, direct observation of the scope of this selection in sperm has been limited by the error rates of sequencing technologies. Using the duplex sequencing method known as NanoSeq, we sequenced bulk sperm samples from individuals aged 24 to 75 years. Our findings revealed a linear accumulation mutations per year and mutational signatures consistent with pedigree studies. Deep targeted and deep exome NanoSeq of sperm samples identified genes subject to significant positive selection in the male germline, which are linked to diverse cellular pathways including RAS/MAPK and BMP signaling. Strikingly, nearly all positively selected genes are associated with developmental or cancer predisposition disorders in children. We find that this effect drives an elevated risk of known likely disease-causing mutations in sperm across a wide age range. This implies that the disorders attributed to these genes likely exhibit elevated birth prevalence in human populations, particularly among older fathers. These findings shed light on the dynamics of germline mutations and highlight an increased disease risk for children born to fathers of advanced age.

  Dataset EGAD00001015591

• MutWP4: CRUK Grand Challenge Mutographs of Cancer: Gastric Organoids (2019-08-07)

  The Mutographs project aims to advance our understanding of the causes of cancer through studies of mutational signatures. Led by Mike Stratton, together with Paul Brennan, Ludmil Alexandrov, Allan Balmain, David Phillips and Peter Campbell, this large-scale international research endeavour was awarded a Cancer Research UK Grand Challenge. Different patterns of somatic mutation are generated by the different environmental, lifestyle and genetic factors that cause cancer, many of them are still unknown. Within Mutographs, Kings College London will characterise the mutational signatures induced by putative human carcinogens in order to identify the origins of mutational signatures found in human cancers. To achieve this human organoid cell cultures will be exposed to a representative catalogue of known or suspected human carcinogens and mutagens and, using whole genome sequencing, the patterns of mutations induced by them will be determined. Somatic mutational signatures will be subsequently extracted by non-negative matrix factorisation methods and correlated with exposure data. Through an enhanced understanding of cancer aetiology, Mutographs unprecedented effort is anticipated to outline modifiable risk factors, lead to new approaches to prevent cancer, and provide opportunities to empower early detection, refine high-risk groups and contribute to further therapeutic development. . This dataset contains all the data available for this study on 2019-08-07.

  Dataset EGAD00001005234

• RaScALL: Rapid (Ra) screening (Sc) of RNA-seq data for prognostically significant genomic alterations in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL)

  RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) efforts in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) have identified numerous prognostically significant genomic alterations which can guide diagnostic risk stratification and treatment choices when detected early. However, a full RNA-seq Bioinformatics workflow is time-consuming and costly in a clinical setting where rapid detection and accurate reporting of clinically relevant alterations are essential. To accelerate the identification of ALL-specific alterations (including gene fusions, single nucleotide variants and focal gene deletions), we developed the rapid screening tool RaScALL, capable of identifying more than 100 prognostically significant lesions directly from raw sequencing reads. RaScALL uses the k-mer based targeted detection tool km and known ALL variant information to achieve a high degree of accuracy for reporting subtype defining genomic alterations compared to standard alignment-based pipelines. Gene fusions, including difficult to detect fusions involving EPOR and DUX4, were accurately identified in 98% (164 samples) of reported cases in a 180-patient Australian study cohort and 95% (n=63) of samples in a North American validation cohort. Pathogenic sequence variants were correctly identified in 75% of tested samples, including all cases involving subtype defining variants PAX5 p.P80R (n=12) and IKZF1 p.N159Y (n=4). Accurate detection of intragenic IKZF1 deletions resulting in aberrant transcript isoforms was also detectable with 98% accuracy. Importantly, the median analysis time for detection of all targeted alterations averaged 22 minutes per sample, significantly shorter than standard alignment-based approaches, ensuring accelerated risk-stratification and therapeutic triage.

  Dataset EGAD00001009087